Ancient African Empires: hoax or fact?

Why ask the question – Ancient African Empires: hoax or facts?

You’d be surprised at the number of people who ask the question and the many forms it takes. My favourite one is “Were Ancient African Empires real or is it just a hoax to make african people feel better about themselves?” The most reasonable one and the core of the real question is “what irrefutable evidence made us realise that ancient African empires existed in the first place?” It is a natural question to wonder what could have been left behind by seemingly prosperous times when what transpires most of Africa seems to be the mental and economical vestiges of the ravages of slavery and colonisation?

In answering this question, it is also relevant to look at how much we know about ancient african empires (quantity) and how do we know about ancient african empires (the methods).

How do we know about the existence of ancient African Empires?

The existence of ancient African empires is a matter of extensive archaeological, linguistic, and historical record rather than speculation or fabrication. Modern historians use a multi-disciplinary approach that combines physical evidence with written and oral traditions. They use “cross-referencing” to compare oral accounts with archaeological finds to verify their accuracy.

Furthermore, modern techniques like linguistic analysis (such as studying the spread of language families) and genetic studies (Bioarchaeology or the study of human remains and ancient DNA reveals information about diet, health, and the diverse origins of imperial populations) together help historians track and understand the reach of imperial influence, the movement and the migration patterns of people and technological exchanges, such as the Bantu expansion, that laid the foundations for these civilisations. The evidence provided by numismatics, specifically the minting of gold and silver coins in the Aksumite Empire, demonstrates that the state possessed a sophisticated economy and significant international standing.

Archaeology

Physical remains provide undeniable proof of complex urban planning and industry. The ruins of Great Zimbabwe, the early iron-smelting furnaces of the Nok culture in Nigeria (like Taruga), the city walls of Benin, the pyramids of Meroë, and the obelisks of Aksum in Ethiopia demonstrate advanced engineering capabilities, sophisticated metallurgy and pottery, and urban planning that predate European contact and indicate complex social hierarchies, extensive trade and a long history of industrial advancement and technological artifacts independent of outside influence.

Some modern accounts include “African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective”, Graham Connah’s seminal work detailing the physical remains of cities and states across the African continent, as well as “The Golden Rhinoceros: Histories of the African Middle Ages”, in which leading historian François-Xavier Fauvelle uses specific artefacts (like the golden rhino of Mapungubwe) to reconstruct the forgotten history of of so-called “invisible” ancient African empires of medieval Africa.

External Written Records and Chronicles

Many African empires were major players in global trade, leading to accounts by travellers and scholars from other regions. Accounts from Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Islamic explorers document the scale of trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trade networks. Medieval Arabic chronicles by historians like Sheikh Ibn Battuta and Al-Bakri provide detailed descriptions of the wealth and courtly rituals of the Mali and Ghana Empires. Other chronicles include the Tarikh al-Sudan (History of the Sudan), a 17th-century West African chronicle that provides a detailed history of the Songhai Empire and its predecessors, written in Arabic around 1655 by Abderrahman ben Abdallah ben ‘Imran ben ‘Amir es-Sadi, a Timbuktu-born chronicler, scholar, and imam better known as Abd al-Sa’di.

Internal Written Records

While ancient Africa had an oral tradition, it is a common misconception that it was entirely oral. Indeed, several regions had written scripts. The Ge’ez script in Ethiopia, the later Ajami script (which used Arabic letters to write African languages), the inscriptions on stone stelae and the Timbuktu Manuscripts serve as primary internal documents. The Timbuktu Manuscripts aka the Tombouctou Manuscripts are thousands of medieval documents from Mali covering subjects including astronomy, law, art, medicine, philosophy, science, religion and mathematics, proving a high level of indigenous literacy and scholarship. There is also the Kebra Nagast, the “Glory of Kings,” a 14th-century Ethiopic text that serves as a primary cultural and historical foundation for the Solomonic dynasty of the Ethiopian Empire.

Oral histories and The Griot Tradition

Oral histories, meticulously preserved and passed down by professional storytellers known as griots in West Africa, provide invaluable internal perspectives on dynastic lineages and cultural milestones. In empires like Mali, oral historians served as living archives, preserving histories through epic poems and songs (like the Epic of Sundiata, the epic tale of King Sundiata Keita, founder of the West African Empire of Mali, and a story of resilience, leadership, and national unity) and other foundational narratives for centuries.

How much do we know about Ancient African Empires – The scope of our knowledge

We know a significant amount about the economic and political structures of these states. For example, the Mali Empire was once the world’s largest producer of gold, and its ruler, Mansa Musa, is historically documented as one of the wealthiest individuals to have ever lived. We also know about the Kingdom of Kush, which at one point conquered and ruled Egypt as the 25th Dynasty.

However, there are still gaps. Because many structures were built with perishable materials like mud-brick (such as the Great Mosque of Djenné), or because some scripts remain undeciphered (like the Meroitic script of Sudan), there is still much to be uncovered through ongoing excavations. To give an idea of the scope, this is a short paragraph of what we know.

The Aksumite Empire functioned as a global trade hub and minted its own coinage, with evidence found in massive stone stelae and coins discovered as far away as India. The Kingdom of Benin is defined by its sophisticated casting of bronze and brass, represented by the “Benin Bronzes” now held in museums worldwide. The Mali Empire served as a centre of Islamic learning and the gold trade, documented in the Timbuktu manuscripts and contemporary Arabic accounts. Great Zimbabwe is known for its massive dry-stone wall architecture, consisting of carbon-dated stone enclosures that span over 700 hectares.

A look at some of these Ancient African Empires and kingdoms

Providing a truly full list of every African empire, kingdom, and city-state is a massive undertaking, as thousands of sovereign entities existed over five millennia. Historians generally categorise them by region and era to make the vast timeline manageable. So here is a list of some of the most significant and historically documented Ancient African Empires and Kingdom.

Northeast Africa & The Nile Valley -Ancient African Empires

This region contains some of the world’s oldest recorded civilisations, many of which rivalled or conquered Ancient Egypt.

• Ancient Egypt (c. 3100–332 BCE)
• Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BCE)
• The Kingdom of Kush (c. 1070 BCE–350 CE), located in the Nile Valley of modern-day Sudan, was a major power known for its ironworking, monumental pyramids at Meroë, and its period of ruling Egypt as the 25th Dynasty “Black Pharaohs”.
• (c. 50–940 CE) – in modern Ethiopia/Eritrea.
• The Aksumite Empire aka the Kingdom of Aksum (c. 1st to 10th century CE) was a major naval and trading power that linked the Roman Empire with India from its advantageous location in present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It was also one of the first major empires to adopt Christianity.
• Makuria, Nobatia, and Alodia (c. 350–1500 CE) were the three Christian Nubian kingdoms.
• The Zagwe Dynasty (c. 900–1270 CE) were famously the builders of the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.
• The Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia) (1270–1974 CE) was one of the world’s longest-lived monarchies.
• Funj Sultanate (1504–1821 CE)

West Africa & The Sahel – Ancient African Empires

The “Golden Age” of West Africa was defined by massive empires that controlled the Trans-Saharan trade routes.

• The Nok Culture (c. 1500 BCE–200 CE) is known for its early iron-workers and terracotta artists.
• The Ghana Empire (c. 300–1200 CE): Known to its rulers as Wagadu or Wagadou and to many others as the “Land of Gold”, this West African state became immensely wealthy by controlling the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt.
• The Mali Empire (c. 1230–1670 CE) was founded by Sundiata Keita; Mali expanded upon Ghana’s foundations to become even larger and wealthier; it is famous for the pilgrimage of Mansa Musa and the university city of Timbuktu.
• The Songhai Empire (c. 1464–1591 CE) was, at its height, the largest and arguably the most renown of the Islamic empires in history, dominating the Sahel with a professional army and a sophisticated civil service.
• The Kanem-Bornu Empire (c. 700–1893 CE) lasted over a thousand years in the Lake Chad basin.
• The Kingdom of Benin Empire (c. 1180 – 1897 CE) was a highly organised state located in modern-day Nigeria and famous for its sophisticated bronze and ivory artworks, its massive earthworksand and its formidable military..
• The Kingdom of Dahomey (c. 1600–1904 CE), located in modern-day Benin, is famously known for its highly militaristic society, the all-female military regiment known as the Dahomey Amazons (the Agojie), and a centralised state built on conquest and slave raids during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The Kanem-Bornu Empire (c. 700 – 1893 CE) was a long-lasting empire that surrounded Lake Chad and served as a vital cultural and commercial bridge between North Africa and the sub-Saharan regions from its central pivot point spanning parts of modern Chad, Nigeria, Niger, and Cameroon.
• The Kingdom of Ife (c. 11th – 15th century CE) was considered the ancestral home of the Yoruba people, and famous for its naturalistic terracotta and bronze sculptures.
• The Oyo Empire (c. 1300–1896 CE) was a powerful Yoruba state with a formidable cavalry.
• The Asante Empire (aka Ashanti Empire) (1701–1957 CE) is known for the Golden Stool and resistance to British rule.
• Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903 CE)
• The Jolof Empire (c. 1350 – 1549 CE) was a confederation of states in present-day Senegal that maintained a strong military and central administration in the Senegambia region.

Central Africa – Ancient African Empires

These empires often developed in the rainforests and savannahs, focusing on complex metallurgy and ivory trade.

• The Kingdom of Kongo (c. 1390–1914 CE) was a powerful and highly centralised African state that developed a complex political structure and established early diplomatic relations with Europe.
• Luba Empire (c. 1585–1889 CE)
• Lunda Empire (c. 1665–1887 CE)
• Kingdom of Kuba (c. 1625–1900 CE) – Renowned for its sophisticated art and geometric textiles.
• Anziku Kingdom (c. 1600s–1800s)

East Africa & The Swahili Coast – Ancient African Empires

This region was defined by a mix of powerful inland kingdoms and a string of wealthy coastal city-states.

• The Swahili City-States (c. 800–1500 CE) were a series of wealthy, independent trading ports along the East African coast, including Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Mogadishu that connected the African interior with the Indian Ocean trade network.
• Ajuran Sultanate (c. 1200s–1600s) – A hydraulic empire in modern Somalia.
• Adal Sultanate (c. 1415–1559 CE)
• Empire of Kitara (c. 1300–1500 CE) – A semi-legendary empire in the Great Lakes region.
• Kingdom of Buganda (c. 1300–Present) – Still exists as a sub-national monarchy in Uganda.
• Kingdom of Rwanda (c. 1400s–1962 CE)

Southern Africa – Ancient African Empires

States in this region are noted for their monumental stone architecture and control over gold and cattle.

• Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c. 1075–1220 CE) – The first major kingdom in Southern Africa.
• The Great Zimbabwe (c. 1220–1450 CE) was a major centre for gold trade with the Swahili coast, renown as the builders of the massive stone enclosures of which remain the Great Zimbabwe ruins.
• The Kingdom of Mutapa (c. 1430–1760 CE) is the successor to Great Zimbabwe.
• The Rozvi Empire (c. 1660–1866 CE) is particularly known for driving the Portuguese out of the Zimbabwean plateau.
• Maravi Empire (c. 1480–1891 CE)
• The Zulu Kingdom (1816–1897 CE) was founded by the renowned Shaka Zulu who famously defeated the British at Isandlwana.
• The Kingdom of Lesotho (1822–Present) remains a sovereign monarchy today.

North Africa – Ancient African Empires

• The Carthage Empire (c. 814 – 146 BCE) was a Phoenician-founded state based in modern-day Tunisia that became a dominant Mediterranean maritime power and a major rival to the Roman Republic.
• The Numidian Kingdom (c. 202 – 46 BCE) was a North African Berber kingdom known for its elite cavalry and that played a crucial role in the Punic Wars.

Key sources of information for Ancient African Empires

• UNESCO General History of Africa: A monumental, multi-volume project involving over 550 experts to reframe African history from an internal perspective. It is one of the most comprehensive academic sources available.
• The Journal of African Archaeology: A peer-reviewed journal focusing on the physical evidence of past African societies, including urban planning and metallurgy.
• African Kingdoms Resources: A curated suite of materials by Dr Toby Green (historian of West Africa and of global inequality in the past and the present at King’s College London) providing primary source documents for empires like Songhay, Kongo, and Benin.
• The Timbuktu Manuscripts exhibit as well as the Wikipedia article on the Timbuktu manuscripts
• A 1922 translation of the Kebra Nagast
• African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective
• The Golden Rhinoceros: Histories of the African Middle Ages